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Volume 48 Issue 6
Nov.  2024
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Effect of negative thermal quenching on optoelectronic properties of acceptor-rich ZnO microtubes

  • Corresponding author: JIANG Yijian, yjjiang@bjut.edu.cn
  • Received Date: 2023-12-27
    Accepted Date: 2024-02-06
  • The effect of intrinsic defect types and concentrations on the behaviors of exciton transitions and carrier transports in ZnO was investigated. The intrinsic acceptor-rich ZnO (A-ZnO) microtubes were grown by the developed optical vapor supersaturation precipitation. The oxygen growth carries gas (O2) was used to realize the regulation of donor acceptor pair and neutral acceptor bound exciton A0X concentrations. The negative thermal quenching phenomenon was attributed to the middle energy state dominated by the defect concentrations. The abundant shallow acceptor concentrations and the middle energy state shifting up result in the electrical resistivity reduction by 7 times and the response time decreasing by 51% compared with the A-ZnO microtubes grown in air, leading to the high-efficient ultraviolet detector with high electrical resistivity. The present work provides a novel platform to optimize ZnO-micro/nanostructures-based optoelectronic devices.
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Effect of negative thermal quenching on optoelectronic properties of acceptor-rich ZnO microtubes

    Corresponding author: JIANG Yijian, yjjiang@bjut.edu.cn
  • 1. School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
  • 2. Faculty of Information Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
  • 3. College of New Materials and Chemical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology, Beijing 102617, China

Abstract: The effect of intrinsic defect types and concentrations on the behaviors of exciton transitions and carrier transports in ZnO was investigated. The intrinsic acceptor-rich ZnO (A-ZnO) microtubes were grown by the developed optical vapor supersaturation precipitation. The oxygen growth carries gas (O2) was used to realize the regulation of donor acceptor pair and neutral acceptor bound exciton A0X concentrations. The negative thermal quenching phenomenon was attributed to the middle energy state dominated by the defect concentrations. The abundant shallow acceptor concentrations and the middle energy state shifting up result in the electrical resistivity reduction by 7 times and the response time decreasing by 51% compared with the A-ZnO microtubes grown in air, leading to the high-efficient ultraviolet detector with high electrical resistivity. The present work provides a novel platform to optimize ZnO-micro/nanostructures-based optoelectronic devices.

0.   引言
  • ZnO是Ⅱ-Ⅵ族直接带隙氧化物半导体材料代表之一,其室温下具有宽禁带(约3.37 eV)、高激子束缚能(60 meV)、以及丰富的本征点缺陷类型等优势,在紫外探测、电致发光、以及光电忆阻器等领域有巨大的应用前景[1-2]。ZnO本征点缺陷主要包括以下6种形态:氧空位(oxygen vacancy,VO)、锌空位(zinc vacancy,VZn)、氧间隙(oxygen interstitial,Oi)、锌间隙(zinc interstitial,Zni)、反位氧(oxygen antisite,OZn)、反位锌(zinc antisite,ZnO)[3]。加州大学圣塔芭芭拉分校的van de WALLE教授课题组采用第一性原理对ZnO各种本征点缺陷浓度及过渡能级ε进行了计算分析,结果表明,点缺陷浓度与缺陷形成能成负指数关系,即当缺陷形成能较低时,平衡点缺陷浓度较高,表示该点缺陷可能易于形成,反之亦然[4]。ZnO缺陷形成能还依赖于生长条件和费米能级位置等因素,可通过改变生长气氛有效调控本征点缺陷浓度分布。例如,在富氧环境下VZn缺陷态形成能最低,易于形成以VZn为主导的富受主型ZnO,其缺陷态具有ε(0/1-)和ε(1-/2-) 两种变化电荷态的过渡能级,分别位于价带顶(valence band maximum, VBM)上方0.18 eV和0.87 eV处。但由于VZn缺陷态的ε(1-/2-)能级属于深能级,很难直接引入VZn实现本征P型导电;ε(0/1-)能级较浅且易于调控,近年来受到了广泛关注。在许多P型ZnO材料的变温光致发光谱(photoluminescence,PL)中,通过引入元素掺杂的方法,已观测到与受主型VZn缺陷态相关的施主-受主对(donor acceptor pair, DAP)发光峰、自由激子到受主能级的跃迁(free-electron to acceptor,FA) 发光峰,以及中性受主束缚激子A0X发光峰[5-7]。本文作者所在课题组前期率先采用光学气化过饱和析出法(optical vapoursupersaturated precipitation,OVSP) 生长本征富受主型ZnO(acceptor-rich ZnO,A-ZnO)微米管,通过PL光谱观察到DAP复合发光峰在室温300 K时可以稳定存在而不发生淬灭,其强度稍低于近带边发光峰(near band emission, NBE)[8]。在后续的研究中发现,A-ZnO微米管的多彩高效荧光、紫外激光输出、本征电致发光、以及忆阻行为等均与本征缺陷态密切相关[9-12]

    通常情况下,ZnO材料的PL发光强度会随着温度的升高而下降,但也会出现了反常的“负热淬灭”现象。香港中文大学ZHANG课题组利用化学气相沉积方法制备了ZnO微米花,在变温光致发光谱中率先观察到了A0X发光峰的“负热淬灭”现象,研究发现,该反常PL特性来源于高温合成时氮杂质引入导致晶格缺陷形成中间能级,局域在该能级上的束缚激子随着温度的提高而被激活,参与辐射复合跃迁导致反常负热淬灭效应的出现[13]。本课题组前期在A-ZnO微米管中也发现了“负热淬灭”反常现象,并将其归因于与本征VO缺陷态有关的中间态陷阱能级束缚激子的热释放,该能级的存在与光生载流子复合过程密切相关[14]。因此,针对ZnO原生缺陷的识别及表征,既是浅受主缺陷能级调控的技术手段,又是优化载流子输运特性的重要参考,可为新型半导体微纳结构电学性能调控提供可能。

    通过调控OVSP生长过程中O2载气含量,制备出浅受主缺陷浓度可控的A-ZnO微米管。利用喇曼光谱、X射线光电子能谱(X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy,XPS)对该A-ZnO微米管进行表征,半定量地分析缺陷类型及浓度。进一步利用变温PL谱研究了A-ZnO微米管PL发光峰强度与温度的影响规律,揭示了其PL发光强度的反常温度依赖物理机制。在此基础上,构建了A-ZnO微米管紫外光电探测器件,实现了低电阻率、快速响应紫外光探测能力。本工作为基于本征缺陷调控的宽禁带半导体光电器件的设计奠定了基础。

1.   实验
  • 本文中采用OVSP法生长A-ZnO微米管[8]:首先以高纯的ZnO(质量分数为99.99%, Alfa Aesar)粉末为原料准备前驱料棒,包括球磨、烘干、过筛、压制、烧结,而后形成致密的ZnO原料棒;然后将ZnO原料棒置于通入O2气氛的光学浮区炉生长腔室中进行光辐照分解与气相过饱和析出,批量生长出直径约为154 μm、长度约为5 mm的A-ZnO微米管。此外,采用同样的步骤,在空气气氛环境下制备了air-ZnO微米管作为研究对照组。

  • A-ZnO微米管的形貌结构和组分由扫描电子显微镜(scanning electron microscope,SEM)、X射线衍射谱(X-ray diffraction, XRD)、XPS测量表征。A-ZnO微米管缺陷表征采用微区喇曼光谱和PL谱进行研究。喇曼光谱由中国科学院半导体研究所SmartRaman共焦显微喇曼系统采集,通过10×物镜背散射模式采集喇曼信号并在配备有600/mm光栅的高分辨光谱仪上进行信号分析,激发光源采用633 nm窄线宽气体连续激光。PL谱采用与测量喇曼光谱相同的光谱仪配置,激发光源采用325 nm He-Cd连续激光器,物镜为紫外聚焦镜头。在变温PL谱测量时,使用液氮-加热控温平台进行精确温度调节。A-ZnO微米管的电学特性采用高精度数字源表进行表征,紫外光源采用Nd∶YAG激光器三倍频模块,其输出波长355 nm,脉宽5 ns,重频30 Hz。A-ZnO光电探测器件的构建采用In/Ga合金作为微米管两端的接触电极,构成金属-半导体-金属器件结构并在室温条件下进行光电性能表征。

2.   结果与讨论
  • 图 1a所示,单根A-ZnO微米管的内外壁都非常平整光滑,其端面为六边形,微米管的直径约为154 μm,长度约为5 mm。图 1b图 1a的壁厚局部放大图,微米管壁厚约为1.46 μm。图 1c为A-ZnO微米管的XRD图谱。与标准卡片(JCPDS No.80-0074)对比分析可以发现,A-ZnO微米管的XRD衍射峰清晰尖锐,晶体结构为六方纤锌矿结构。为了激发与缺陷有关的2阶纵声学声子(longitudinal acoustic phonon,LA)模式(2LA),采用激发光偏振方向与A-ZnO微米管c轴平行的背散射配置[15]图 1d展示了A-ZnO微米管6个喇曼振动模式,分别是位于203 cm-1处的2Elow, 2模式、332 cm-1处的Ehigh, 2-Elow, 2模式、377 cm-1和410 cm-1处具有A1和E1对称性的横光学声子(transverse optical phonon,TO)模式、537 cm-1处的2LA模式以及666 cm-1处的横声学声子+纵光学声子(transverse acoustic phonon+longitudinal optical phonon,TA+LO)模式,其中2LA喇曼振动模式是与A-ZnO微米管的本征VZn缺陷有关[16-17],A1和E1分别为喇曼振动方向平行和垂直于c轴的极性模式。通过XRD和喇曼光谱的表征可知,OVSP法所生长的A-ZnO微米管为沿c轴取向生长的单晶结构。

    Figure 1.  Morphologic and structural characterization of A-ZnO microtube

  • 图 2a为A-ZnO微米管的XPS全谱和精细谱,表明A-ZnO微米管中只包括Zn原子和O原子。图 2b为以C 1s的284.8 eV峰进行能谱标定的精细谱。图 2c为Zn元素2p电子态的精细谱,Zn 2p3/2与Zn 2p1/2的中心峰分别位于1021.5 eV和1044.5 eV,结合能间距为23 eV[18]。相比于ZnO块体单晶,A-ZnO微米管的Zn 2p电子态束缚能提高约0.4 eV,归因于富氧气氛下生长的A-ZnO微米管具有较高浓度的VZn缺陷,降低了Zn价电子浓度,进而提高了内层电子束缚能[8]图 2d为A-ZnO微米管和air-ZnO微米管O 1s的精细XPS谱并进行高斯-洛伦兹拟合。A-ZnO微米管中位于530.3 eV、531.6 eV、和532.8 eV处的拟合峰分别对应晶格氧(lattice oxygen,OL)、空位氧(oxygen vacancy,OV)和表面化学吸附氧(surface chemicalab-sorbed oxygen,OC)[19]。根据OV与OL的峰面积比值R可半定量表明A-ZnO微米管中OV浓度高低。可以发现,A-ZnO微米管的R值为0.82,相比air-ZnO微米管降低了24.8%,表明VO缺陷在富氧气氛下生长被抑制,可能导致深施主能级向导带底(conduction band minimum,CBM)移动[20]

    Figure 2.  XPS spectra of A-ZnO microtube

  • 前期研究成果表明,OVSP方法生长的A-ZnO微米管在室温下存在稳定的DAP发光峰[21-25]图 3a为室温下A-ZnO微米管和air-ZnO微米管的典型PL发光峰。包括位于3.26 eV和3.29 eV处的NBE发光峰以及3.14 eV和3.17 eV处DAP复合发光峰,发现A-ZnO微米管的DAP与NBE发光峰强度比值为0.67,比air-ZnO微米管高约1.63倍。当温度降低至80 K时,A-ZnO微米管的PL发光峰产生了明显的分峰现象,出现位于3.23 eV处的DAP发光峰及其1阶声子半线发光峰(longitudinal optical phonon replicas of the DAP transition,DAP-LO)[26](即DAP-1LO)、位于3.31 eV处的FA发光峰、位于3.36 eV处的A0X发光峰以及位于3.37 eV处的自由激子(free exciton,FX)发光峰。其中,A-ZnO微米管的A0X与FA发光峰强度比值为0.43,比air-ZnO微米管高约2.39倍。A-ZnO微米管的A0X发光峰强度增强与N掺杂而引起的A0X增强相似[27]。可以推断,富氧环境下生长的A-ZnO微米管受主态缺陷浓度得到提高。FA发光峰的浅受主结合能Ea根据下式计算获得[28]

    Figure 3.  a—PL spectra of A-ZnO microtube and air-ZnO microtube at 300 K and 80 K respectively b~d—PL spectra of A-ZnO microtube at different temperature

    式中:Eg是低温下的ZnO带隙(Eg=3.437 eV);EFA是FA跃迁能;kB是玻尔兹曼常数;T是温度。计算结果表明,A-ZnO微米管的Ea≈132 meV,表明浅受主能级位置位于价带顶附近。常温下VZn一般包含两个精细能级:(a)位于VBM以上0.1 eV~0.2 eV处的0/1-电荷态转变能级;(b)位于VBM以上0.8 eV~1.2 eV处的1-/2-电荷态转变能级[4]。根据计算可以推断,A-ZnO微米管的A0X、FA以及DAP发光峰与VZn(0/1-)缺陷态有关。

    图 3b~图 3d展示了A-ZnO微米管的PL发光峰强度的温度依赖关系。如图 3b所示,在80 K~160 K温度范围内,随着温度升高,电子-声子相互作用导致A-ZnO微米管带隙变窄,进而使得PL发射峰发生红移[29]。同时,DAP、FA以及FX的发光峰强度分别下降为原来的28.2%、9.8%以及24.3%。DAP-1LO因声子散射的增强而消失,A0X发光峰由于热离化形成自由激子简并到FX发光峰。图 3c为在170 K~200 K温度范围内,A-ZnO微米管发光峰强度随着温度升高而出现增强现象,即发生了发光“负热淬灭”效应。图 3d为在210 K~300 K温度范围内,FA和FX发光峰逐渐简并到较宽的NBE发光峰中,而发光峰强度随着温度升高而出现减弱现象,即恢复为发光热淬灭过程。

    为了揭示A-ZnO微米管PL发光“负热淬灭”物理机制,通过多能级模型拟合PL发光峰强度与温度的依赖关系[30]:

    式中:I(T)和I(0)分别表示温度为T K和0 K时的PL发光峰强度;Eq′为“负热淬灭”效应的活化能;Ej为非辐射复合过程的活化能,j取整数代表着不同非辐射复合过程,q取整数,代表不同负热淬灭过程;玻尔兹曼常数kB=8.617×10-5 eV/K;DqCj为拟合常数。如图 4a所示,w=1、m=2时拟合效果较好。根据FA发光峰强度与温度拟合结果可得:E1′=481 meV,E1 =531 meV和E2 =31 meV。前期的研究表明,较浅的E2能级无法作为有效复合中心[14],因此式(2)包含一个“负热淬灭”过程和一个非辐射复合过程。此外,FX与DAP发光峰的E1′值较为接近,分别为417 meV和423 meV,两者与FA的E1′值差值分别为64 meV和58 meV。由于ZnO的DAP发光峰中浅施主能级以及激子结合能Eb≈60 meV。可以推断,A-ZnO微米管的PL发光强度随温度的变化过程中,在CBM以下481 meV处存在中间态能级。随着温度升高时,局限在该陷阱中心的束缚激子获得热能而被激活,参与复合跃迁辐射,致使发光强度反常增强。同时,在A-ZnO微米管CBM以下的531 meV处还存在非辐射复合中间态能级,电子-空穴以肖克利-里德-霍尔(Shockley-Read-Hall,SRH)非辐射复合[14]。ZnO中的VO在常温下具有两个精细能级:(a)位于VBM以上约1.82 eV处的0/1+电荷态转变能级;(b)位于VBM以上约2.51 eV处的1+/2+电荷态转变能级[4]。可以推断,VO是A-ZnO微米管发光“负热淬灭”效应的中间态陷阱能级[31]图 4b展示出FX和A0X发光峰随温度升高发生红移,采用Varshni公式进行拟合[32]

    Figure 4.  a—intensities of FA, FX and DAP emission of A-ZnO with temperature, and the corresponding fitting curves b—photon energies of FX and A0X emission of A-ZnO with temperature, and the corresponding fitting curves c—energy level diagrams of air-ZnO microtube and A-ZnO microtube, respectively

    式中:E(T)和E(0)分别表示T K和0 K时PL发射峰的跃迁能;αβ为拟合常数。当温度为80 K时,拟合结果得到A0X与FX发光峰对应光子能量差值约15 meV。随着温度升高,A0X由于热解离而逐渐转变为FX。根据拟合结果可以推算出,A0X在202 K时全部简并为FX发射峰,高于air-ZnO微米管A0X发光峰的简并温度(163 K)[14],证明了富氧气氛生长的A-ZnO微米管富含浅受主缺陷浓度,可束缚更多的自由激子,致使A0X发生简并的温度提高,弱化了FX的发光热淬灭效应。图 4c展示了A-ZnO微米管的能带结构示意图。相较于前期工作研究中(air-ZnO微米管的E1′值为CBM以下488 meV处,E1值为CBM以下628 meV处[14]),氧气环境下生长的A-ZnO微米管中间局域态能级位置更接近CBM。

  • 对于ZnO基紫外探测器件,其光电探测性能的调控取决于对缺陷态的控制。为了研究A-ZnO微米管中缺陷改变对紫外探测器光响应性能的影响,采用In/Ga合金作为A-ZnO微米管的两端接触电极,构建了金属-半导体-金属结构本征光导型光电探测器,如图 5a所示。图 5b为A-ZnO微米管和air-ZnO微米管在20 V偏压下的电流-电压(I-V)曲线。其电阻率(electrical resistivity)ρ可通过以下公式计算得出[33]

    Figure 5.  a—schematic of the A-ZnO microtube detector b—voltage corresponding to current of A-ZnO microtubes and air-ZnO microtubes c—photocurrent response of A-ZnO microtube under various light energy intensity d—the normalized photocurrent response of A-ZnO microtube

    式中:R是微米管的电阻;S是微米管截面面积;tw是微米管管壁厚度;d是微米管的直径;l是微米管的长度。计算结果表明,A-ZnO微米管ρ=10.06×10-2 Ω · cm,相较air-ZnO微米管电阻率降低了7倍,这归因于在A-ZnO微米管中浅受主浓度的提升。图 5c为A-ZnO微米管探测器在10 mV偏压下的紫外光响应特性。当紫外光照射A-ZnO微米管器件时,器件的光电流迅速上升,随后趋于稳定;当停止紫外光照时,电流逐渐衰减到初始值。随着紫外光能量密度的增加,相应的光电流有所增加。为了定量分析器件的紫外光响应特性,图 5d为A-ZnO微米管对355 nm紫外光的瞬态响应谱。通过拟合可以获得A-ZnO微米管光电流的响应时间[34]

    式中:I(t)为随时间变化对应的电流;I0A1A2A3A4分别是初始暗电流和拟合常数;τ1,rτ2,r分别表示响应的快速上升时间和缓慢上升时间;τ1,dτ2,d分别表示恢复的快速下降时间和缓慢下降时间。通过计算结果得到A-ZnO微米管探测器的快速和缓慢上升沿与下降沿时间分别为1.48 s,34.03 s,17.94 s,244.60 s。相较于air-ZnO微米管的响应时间(3 s, 49.3 s, 38 s, 360 s)[26],A-ZnO微米管的响应时间缩短51%,说明该器件对355 nm紫外光具有良好的响应能力。早期的研究发现,ZnO基紫外光电探测器的光响应特性与O2在其表面的吸附和解吸附过程有关[35-36]。结合本文中缺陷能级分析可知,A-ZnO微米管与VO缺陷有关的中间态陷阱能级位置向CBM靠近,有利于浅施主VO缺陷增多,从而捕获O2分子的能力变强[37-38]。此时,O2分子更容易吸附在A-ZnO微米管表面促进耗尽层的形成。在紫外光照下,耗尽层中的内建电场能够显著提高光生载流子的分离率,缩短了A-ZnO微米管探测器的光响应时间。当停止紫外光照,光生载流子重新复合,O2分子在VO缺陷作用下快速再吸附使得A-ZnO微米管电导率迅速降低,实现了基于负热淬灭效应的中间态能级调控的紫外响应速率提升,为未来紫外光电探测器件的优化提供了新思路。

3.   结论
  • 通过调控OVSP法生长气氛中的氧含量,实现直径约为150 μm、长度约为5 mm的A-ZnO微米管浅受主缺陷浓度可控的微米晶体生长,将A-ZnO微米管中与浅受主VZn缺陷有关的DAP和A0X发光峰强度分别提高了1.63倍和2.39倍;揭示了VO缺陷浓度调控中间局域态能级发光“负热淬灭”效应;明确了A-ZnO微米管PL发光峰强度随着温度变化过程中存在与本征施主型VO缺陷有关的一个“负热淬灭”过程和一个非辐射复合过程的中间态能级。通过提高浅受主浓度以及提升中间态能级位置,A-ZnO微米管的电阻率降低了7倍,紫外光响应时间缩短51%,有利于增强A-ZnO微米管紫外光电响应能力。本研究通过光学过饱和气相析出(OVSP)生长工艺直接调控了A-ZnO微米管本征缺陷浓度,为高性能宽禁带微纳光电器件的设计与制备提供了新途径。

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