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Stress birefringence measurement technology of heat strengthened glass based on laser feedback

  • Corresponding author: ZHANG Shulian, zsl-dpi@tsinghua.edu.cn
  • Received Date: 2019-07-29
    Accepted Date: 2019-10-14
  • In order to measure the stress birefringence of heat strengthened glass quickly and accurately, and to monitor the product quality in real time, the automatic stress birefringence measurement technology of heat strengthened glass based on laser feedback was studied by combining the semi-classical theory and the three-mirror cavity theory model. The measuring equipment was composed of precision optical elements and motion platform, and the main stress direction of the sample was automatically judged by calculating the duty cycle of the low level of polarized light. The measurement efficiency was improved; The fluctuation range of output voltage was controlled within a narrow range by reducing the gradient of input voltage change, which improves displacement stability of piezoelectric ceramics. The experimental results show that the value of the stress birefringence of the sample is determined by the position of the flipping point in a polarization flipping period on the tuning curve. The maximum deviation of multiple measurements is 6.1nm/cm and the standard deviation is less than 2.0nm/cm in multiple measurements. Such technology has the characteristics of short measurement period, high precision and good repeatability, which is suitable for practical production.
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    ZHAO X A. Curtain wall can be made of semi-toughened glass[J]. Doors & Windows, 2008, 12(12): 1-3(in Chinese).
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    GENERAL ADMINISTRATION OF QUALITY SUPERVISION, INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC of CHILNA, STANDARDIZATION ADMINISTRATION OF THE PEOPLE′S REPUBLIC OF CHINA. GB15763.3-2009 National Standard of the People's Republic of China—Ssfety glazing materials in building[S].Beijing: Standards Press of China, 2009: 3-5(in Chinese).
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    MU H Y, HU W, CHEN F H, et al. Application of optical waveguide effect in measurement of surface stress in chemically strengthened glass[J]. Glass & Enamel, 2017, 45(4):6-12(in Chinese).
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    CHEN L, ZHANG Q H, MAO W M. Analysis and calculation of residual stress and its distribution by two-dimensional X-ray diffraction[J]. Transactions of Materials and Heat Treatment, 2006, 27(1): 120-123 (in Chinese).
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    ZHOU T H.Measuring method of stress in glass[J].Glass & Enamel, 2001, 29 (6):44-47(in Chinese).
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    ZHANG P, TAN Y D, LIU W X, et al. Methods for optical phase retardation measurement: A review[J]. Science China, 2013, 56(5):1155-1164. doi: 10.1007/s11431-013-5207-4
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    CHEN W, LI H, ZHANG Sh L, et al. Measurement of phase retardation of waveplate online based on laser feedback[J]. Review of Scientific Instruments, 2012, 83(1):013101. doi: 10.1063/1.3673641
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    FEI L, ZHANG Sh L, LI Y, et al. Polarization control in a He-Ne laser using birefringence feedback[J]. Optics Express, 2005, 13(8):3117-3122. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.13.003117
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    WU Y, TAN Y D, ZHANG Sh L, et al. Polarization characteristics of He-Ne laser with different directions of polarized feedback[J]. Applied Optics, 2013, 52(22):5371-5375. doi: 10.1364/AO.52.005371
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    GROOT P J, GALLATIN G M, MACOMBER S H. Ranging and velocimetry signal generation in a backscatter-modulated laser diode[J]. Applied Optics, 1988, 27(21):4475-4480. doi: 10.1364/AO.27.004475
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    CUI L, ZHANG Sh L. Semi-classical theory model for feedback effect of orthogonally polarized dual frequency He-Ne laser[J]. Optics Express, 2005, 13(17):6558-6563. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.13.006558
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    LIU W X, ZHANG Sh L, DING M, et al. Error analysis and experimental testing of measuring wave plate based on laser frequency splitting[J].Opto-electronic Engineering, 2010, 37(2):54-59(in Ch-inese).
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    NIU H Sh, NIU Y X, LI J Y.Measurement of stress-induced birefringence in glasses based on reflective laser feedback effect[J].Optical Engineering, 2017, 56(2):024104. doi: 10.1117/1.OE.56.2.024104
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    LI J Y, NIU Y X, NIU H Sh. Measurement of phase retardation of optical multilayer films based on laser feedback system[J]. Optics Express, 2016, 24(1):409-416. doi: 10.1364/OE.24.000409
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    DENG Y, MA X.Automatic positioning of optical axis of wave-plate in a laser feedback birefringence measurement system[J].Laser Technology, 2019, 43(2):217-221(in Chinese).
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    WEI Zh M, YANG K Y. Controller of multi-axis motorized optical stages based on DAQ card and multiplexer[J].Laser Journal, 2010, 31(5):38-39 (in Chinese).
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    GENERAL ADMINISTRATION OF QUALITY SUPERVISION, INSPECTION AND QUARANTINE OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA, STANDARDIZATION ADMINISTRATION OF THE PEOPLE′S REPUBLIC OF CHINA. GB/T17841-2008 National Standard of the People's Republic of China—Heat-strengthened glass[S]. Beijing: Standards Press of China, 2008: 2-3(in Chinese).
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Stress birefringence measurement technology of heat strengthened glass based on laser feedback

    Corresponding author: ZHANG Shulian, zsl-dpi@tsinghua.edu.cn
  • 1. School of Mechanical Engineering, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
  • 2. State Key Laboratory of Precision Measurement Technology and Instruments, Department of Precision Instruments, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

Abstract: In order to measure the stress birefringence of heat strengthened glass quickly and accurately, and to monitor the product quality in real time, the automatic stress birefringence measurement technology of heat strengthened glass based on laser feedback was studied by combining the semi-classical theory and the three-mirror cavity theory model. The measuring equipment was composed of precision optical elements and motion platform, and the main stress direction of the sample was automatically judged by calculating the duty cycle of the low level of polarized light. The measurement efficiency was improved; The fluctuation range of output voltage was controlled within a narrow range by reducing the gradient of input voltage change, which improves displacement stability of piezoelectric ceramics. The experimental results show that the value of the stress birefringence of the sample is determined by the position of the flipping point in a polarization flipping period on the tuning curve. The maximum deviation of multiple measurements is 6.1nm/cm and the standard deviation is less than 2.0nm/cm in multiple measurements. Such technology has the characteristics of short measurement period, high precision and good repeatability, which is suitable for practical production.

引言
  • 在玻璃生产过程中,常用一些物理或者化学方法进行钢化处理,处理后的玻璃会产生预应力,从而提高其抗冲击强度和机械强度[1]。半钢化玻璃的性能介于钢化玻璃与平板玻璃之间,其强度是平板玻璃的两倍以上,相比钢化玻璃具有平整度较好、不易自爆[2]等特点。此外,半钢化玻璃具有抗风压性、冲击性和寒暑性等特点,常用于幕墙和外窗,应用场合较为广泛[3]。半钢化玻璃中的应力大小会受到生产工艺的影响,国家标准GB15763中规定,玻璃的钢化程度可以由应力表征,即半钢化玻璃的应力指标是检验其安全性能的一项重要标准[4]。因此测量分析半钢化玻璃的应力,对提高半钢化玻璃产品品质和安全性能具有实际意义。常用的半钢化玻璃应力测量方法各具特点,传统的薄切片光弹法和反射光法结合涂层法,其测量效率较高,但存在样品制作周期长、测量误差大等缺点,只适用于直观粗略分析应力的场合; 光波导法[5]精确度较高,测量误差在10nm以内,但需要测量玻璃表面的折射率,并与集成光路技术协同作用,操作步骤较复杂。干涉色法测量装置简单但测量误差较大,一般在20nm~50nm; 除此之外,超声波法、X射线法[6]和Senarmont光学测量法[7]等物理方法因精度高而受到广泛关注,但仍然存在装置结构复杂、价格昂贵、调试周期长等问题。近年来,激光回馈效应和应用技术的研究引起了国内外专家的关注。激光回馈效应又称为自混合干涉,它描述的是激光照射在外物上,部分反射光被物体反射回激光腔内后与腔内光场相互作用的调制现象[8]。由于激光回馈系统具有易准直、成本低、结构紧凑和精度高等特点,所以广泛应用在速度、位移、振动等测量领域。

    为同时满足性价比、测量效率和测量重复性等工业要求,本文中选择精密光学元件搭建应力双折射自动测量系统,通过分析三镜腔理论模型中将回馈腔等效为腔镜反射率变化的过程,具体论述了激光回馈效应中出现的偏振跳变现象,深入研究了应力双折射的测量原理。该技术的主要特点是,利用偏振跳变曲线中特征点的位置,计算由半钢化玻璃应力引起的应力双折射大小,得到较精确的测量结果。在实际应用中,系统的控制程序根据o光和e光低电平占空比,自动判断半钢化玻璃的主应力方向,采用降低输入电压变化梯度的方法,减小电压波动,提高压电陶瓷位移稳定性,故激光回馈半钢化应力双折射测量技术相比其它应力测量技术具有更高的可靠性。

1.   测量系统的基本结构
  • 基于激光回馈效应搭建光学测量系统如图 1所示。采用全内腔He-Ne激光器作为系统光源,波长为632.8nm,增益管长为140mm,输出单纵模线偏振光。腔镜是反射率分别为99.9%和98.5%的高反镜。回馈腔由腔镜(cavity mirror, M1)和回馈镜(feedback mi-rror, M2)组成,M1为反射率98.9%的高反镜,回馈镜M2反射率为20%,并与压电陶瓷粘接。压电陶瓷为PI公司制造的高精度压电陶瓷[9],耐压1kV,三角波驱动电压低于200V。计算机控制采集卡输出的三角波电压经数模转换(digital-to-analog converter, DAC)后,利用放大电路(amplifier, AMP)放大并施加到压电陶瓷上,继而驱动回馈镜前后往复运动,调谐回馈外腔长度。系统采用渥拉斯顿棱镜进行分光,与光电探测器D2组合使用,采集的o光、e光偏振态信号经模数转换(analog-to-digital converter, ADC)后输入电脑,同时,光电探测器D1采集的光强信号也由采集卡输入电脑,便于后续的程序处理。测量之前,需调节渥拉斯顿棱镜及衰减片,保证无扫描外腔时,只出现o光或者e光[10]。承载半钢化玻璃的电动控制台置于回馈外腔中,它的工作电流在1.5A以内,步距角为1.8°,细分数为16,在通光范围内不会遮挡光束,具有精确定位和长时间工作的性能。根据系统特性配备多功能电箱,其主要作用是:提供压电陶瓷驱动电压、采集并放大光电信号等。

    Figure 1.  Automatic stress birefringence measurement system for heat-strengthened glass based on laser feedback

2.   应力双折射计算方法及原理
  • 半钢化玻璃中的应力会表现出双折射的特性[11],根据国家标准GB903-87规定,可以通过光学玻璃的应力双折射(nm/cm),即主应力方向上单位厚度的双折射光程差σ表征应力:

    式中, Δ是应力双折射光程差,d是玻璃样品的厚度。一般很难对Δ进行直接测量,而是通过o光、e光的相位差δ间接求得,关系为:

    式中, λ为波长。由(1)式和(2)式可以得到o光和e光的相位差与玻璃的应力双折射之间的关系:

    三镜腔理论模型于1988年由GROOT等研究人员建立[12],理论模型如图 2所示。

    Figure 2.  The three-mirror cavity model

    图中初始光场分为两个部分,一部分被腔镜M1直接反射回腔内,一部分透过M1后被回馈镜M2反射回腔内,此时两光场相互叠加。将M1,M2等效腔镜与腔镜M3构成F-P腔,等效腔镜的反射系数为:

    式中, r1, r2分别为M1, M2的反射系数,t1是腔镜M1的透射系数,l为回馈腔腔长,k=2π/λ, 由此可得等效

    腔镜的反射率为:

    当回馈腔中放入存在应力的样品时,回馈腔分为两个不同的物理腔长,样品产生的相位差为δ,o光和e光两个方向上有不同的外腔光程,o光和e光的等效反射率分别为:

    式中, R1为M1强度反射率。(6)式表示测量系统中回馈腔的作用等价于腔镜反射率的变化,此时则能在激光腔内利用半经典的气体激光器理论研究激光回馈效应[13]

    Figure 3.  Polarization flipping schematic

    图 3所示,设o光方向为x方向,e光方向为y方向,当激光器本征偏振态为x方向时,偏振态x的等效反射率等于正常激光回馈反射率,即Rx-x, eff=Rx, eff, 此时y偏振光未进入外腔,等效反射率等于腔镜反射率,即Rx-y, eff=R1。同理可得,当本征偏振态为y方向时,Ry-y, eff=Ry, eff, Ry-x, eff=R1。一般情况下,出射光的偏振方向取决于两个偏振态的损耗,在本文中可近似认为,激光器本征偏振态的等效反射率决定其相应的损耗大小,等效反射率越小,损耗越大,该偏振态在模式竞争中则处于劣势,较难起振[14]。当激光器本征偏振态为x方向时,ABRx-x, eff>R1, 出射光为x偏振态; B点以后,Rx-x, eff < R1, 出射光跳变成y偏振态,BCRy-y, eff>R1, 出射光保持y偏振态; CDRy-y, eff < R1,出射光应该跳变成x偏振态,但是由于Rx-x, eff<R1,此时偏振态取决于Ry-y, effRx-x, eff大小,因为Ry-y, eff>Ry-y, eff, 故出射光仍为y偏振态,同理DE段偏振态为x偏振态,以此类推可得光强信号曲线。基于上述原理当两个偏振态的等效反射率受到回馈腔腔长的调制时,得到如图 4所示的完整的调制曲线。

    Figure 4.  Modulation curve of laser

    图 4中光强信号和偏振态信号由D1和D2探测,当压电陶瓷(piezoelectric ceramic, PZT)扫描外腔时,o光和e光交替出现,若将探测器D2放大至饱和状态,偏振态信号则被整形成方波[15]。一个调谐周期中包含几个特征点,a点、d点为光强最小点,c点、b点为等光强点,b点为偏振跳变点。光强曲线上的a点、b点、c点、d点分别对应o光和e光曲线上的A点、B点、C点、D点。在回馈腔中激光两次经过样品,B-C点的相位差是样品相位差的两倍,A-D点为一个间隔为2π的调谐周期。由此可得相位差与偏振跳变点的关系式:

    由于o光、e光之间的相位差是由样品中的应力引起,故样品的应力双折射可表示为:

    式中, σ为样品的应力双折射大小,λ为波长,d为样品厚度,lbclad分别表示b点、c点之间的长度和a点、d点之间的长度。

3.   应力方向的自动判断
  • 在测量半钢化玻璃样品应力的过程中,需判别样品的主应力方向,并使其与激光初始偏振方向保持一致[16]。在转动样品的过程中,回馈腔腔长与偏振态信号间变化呈现一定规律,当样品的主应力方向逐渐接近初始偏振方向时,随着回馈腔长度增加,偏振态光强增大。至两者方向完全一致时,其中垂直于主应力轴方向的偏振态分量会被完全隔离,只能探测到一种偏振态信号,出现谷底值为0V的标准方波信号,此时表示主应力方向与初始偏振方向相同,如图 5所示。一般使用采集信号的电压值来表征光的强度。

    Figure 5.  a—the stress axis is close to the initial polarization direction   b—the stress axis is aligned with the initial polarization direction

    在设计自动控制系统时,半钢化玻璃主应力方向的判别尤为重要,将上述规律进行总结设计程序,采用计算o光和e光低电平占空比的方法对主应力方向进行自动判别。理论上,当主应力方向与激光初始偏振方向一致时,经过渥拉斯顿棱镜后分开的o光和e光总的低电平占空比应为0.5。但在实际调节样品的过程中,系统受到外界温度、振动、杂散光等因素的影响[17],低电平的占空比往往不能达到理论值。图 6是多次调节样品后偏振光低电平占空比的测量结果。

    Figure 6.  The duty cycle of the low level of polarized light

    经过重复测试分析后得到,当两束光的低电平占空比不小于0.47即可获得标准的方波信号,该值与理论值误差小于6%,认为该值具有可信度,予以采纳。因此自动控制程序通过处理NI-6009数据采集卡接收的o光和e光信号实时判断其低电平占空比,驱动电动载物台运动[18]自动寻找样品的主应力方向,具有较高的定位精度与灵敏度,能有效地提高测量效率。

4.   实验分析
  • 选用厂家生产的长20cm、宽8cm、厚0.3cm的半钢化玻璃作为样品,如图 7所示。

    Figure 7.  Sample of heat strengthened glass

    将样品放置在自动载物台上,以样品的一端点作为原点建立坐标系,在a区域中坐标为(0.5,0.5)cm处重复测量10次以评估系统重复性,测量结果如图 8所示。单点测量最大偏差为6.7nm/cm, 标准差为2.52nm/cm。

    Figure 8.  Measurement results of stress birefringence at coordinate point (0.5, 0.5)cm

    在上述测量过程中作者注意到电箱的输出电压存在漂移和波动的现象,导致压电陶瓷扫描外腔时的驱动电压不稳定,对测量结果的精确度与重复性产生较大影响。经过排除电箱中电源模块及信号放大模块等影响因素后,认为在相同时间内,电箱较大的电压变化梯度会导致其稳定性下降。因此为平衡电箱稳定性与电压输出范围的关系,通过增大控制电压的时间间隔降低输出电压的变化梯度,使电箱持续稳定地为器件供电。

    在改善电箱的稳定性能后,继续在a, b, c, d 4个边缘区域中选择A点(0.5,0.5)cm、B点(19.5,0.5)cm、C点(0.5,7.5)cm、D点(19.5,7.5)cm作为测量点进行10次重复测量,记录各次测量的应力双折射平均值与极值,测量结果如表 1所示。

    times the stress value of the sample/(nm·cm-1)
    point A point B point C point D
    1 817.9 880.6 867.4 801.9
    2 815.8 879.6 866.9 801.4
    3 815.3 879.1 866.3 800.7
    4 819.5 878.9 867.1 796.8
    5 817.8 879.9 868.6 798.8
    6 818.3 882.5 865.4 798.6
    7 818.5 878.6 866.8 798.8
    8 817.9 882.3 867.3 799.5
    9 814.6 879.7 864.7 800.8
    10 814.9 880.9 866.5 798.3
    minimum 814.6 878.6 864.7 796.8
    maximum 819.5 882.5 868.6 801.9
    mean 817.05 880.21 886.7 799.56
    standard deviation 1.73 1.35 1.08 1.60

    Table 1.  Stress birefringence measurement data of semi-tempered glass (1)

    由表中数据可知,4个测量点的应力双折射值均在半钢化玻璃国家标准[19]中规定的624nm/cm~1794nm/cm范围内,样品属于合格的半钢化玻璃。其中单点最大偏差为5.1nm/cm,最大标准差为1.73nm/cm,多次测量结果的重复性较好。为检测系统长期工作的重复性与稳定性,随机选取同一批次中的另一块半钢化玻璃作为实验样品,重复上述测量过程,测量结果如表 2所示。

    times the stress value of the sample/(nm·cm-1)
    point A point B point C point D
    1 817.2 879.1 797.6 864.4
    2 816.8 882.7 797.6 865.4
    3 817.9 880.2 798.5 865.0
    4 817.2 881.5 800.1 865.1
    5 813.4 880.1 797.0 863.7
    6 818.2 881.2 802.6 861.4
    7 817.9 879.5 796.9 864.7
    8 816.3 879.9 799.0 867.3
    9 819.5 880.6 796.8 863.8
    10 818.0 882.8 798.3 863.6
    minimum 813.4 879.1 796.8 861.4
    maximum 819.5 882.8 802.6 867.3
    mean 817.24 880.76 798.44 864.44
    standard deviation 1.61 1.27 1.79 1.52

    Table 2.  Stress birefringence measurement data of semi-tempered glass (2)

    同样,测量结果验证了该样品符合国家标准规定,该次测量的单点最大偏差为6.1nm/cm,标准差为1.79nm/cm,重复性较好。综合两组不同样品的测试结果进行对比,4个测试点中的单次测量最小偏差为3.7nm/cm, 偏差最大为6.1nm/cm, 造成测量偏差的原因除了测试环境的细微差别外,还有激光器自身特性的微小变化[20],均属于正常的随机误差范围,测量结果标准差平均低于2.0nm/cm,在一定程度上达到稳定测量的要求。

5.   结论
  • 为保证半钢化玻璃的生产质量,提升其在各种应用场合的安全性,对基于激光回馈效应的半钢化玻璃应力双折射自动测量技术展开研究。根据系统实际需要,选择合适的激光器参量和其它光学元件搭建了光学测量系统,以三镜腔理论和半经典理论为基础解释了由半钢化玻璃应力引起的偏振跳变现象及其应力双折射测量方法。

    (1) 系统对半钢化玻璃的测量是依靠激光器内部偏振态直接反映应力双折射大小的,多次重复测量的偏差控制在3.7nm/cm~6.1nm/cm范围内,标准差低于2.0nm/cm,相比波导法具有结构简单、操作便捷等特点,相比干涉色法与Senarmont补偿法,在精度和重复性上具有优越性。

    (2) 自动控制程序与精密电动载物台配合能够快速准确地定位样品的主应力轴方向,占空比可达0.47以上,进一步提高测量效率和自动化水平。

    (3) 测量装置采用的器件均为精密光学元件,系统结构简单、性价比高,能够在实际生产过程中灵活运用,为在线测量半钢化玻璃应力双折射大小提供重要思路。

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